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STRUCTURE OF THORIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( October 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ”(2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Although thorium (Th) has 6 naturally occurring isotopes, none of these isotopes are stable; however, one isotope, Th-232, is relatively stable, with a half-life of 14.05 billion years, considerably longer than the age of the earth, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted age of the universe. This isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium. As such, thorium is considered to be mononuclidic. It has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and thus an atomic mass can be given. Thirty radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable (after Th-232) being Th-230 with a half-life of 75,380 years, Th-229 with a half-life of 7,340 years, and Th-228 with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One isotope, Th-229, has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation energy, recently measured to be 7.6 ± 0.5 eV It is well well-known that the structure of lead-164 (core) of high symmetry consists of 8 horizontal planes and 2 horizontal lines providing blank positions for receiving extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron. (See the fourth figure of lead at the bottom of the page). Similarly the structure of thorium-180 (core) with 90 protons and 90 neutrons (even number) consists of 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins, including four additional deuterons with S = +2 and S = -2 which exist over and under the structure of 8 horizontal planes, forming the up horizontal line (+UHL) and a down horizontal line (-DHL). So all these nucleons of the 8 horizontal planes and the +UHL and the -DHL give S = 0 . Moreover several protons of such a structure provide 52 blank positions able to receive 52 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for constructing not a stable isotope, but the long-lived Th-232 with S =0, because here there is a large number of pp repulsions of long range which always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. ' In general, the structure of Th-232 (core) has S =0 and is similar to the structure of Pb-164, because the two additional vertical systems of p89n89 and p90n90 with S = 0 make symmetrical vertical rectangles. So the long-lived Th-232 is based on the structure of Th-180 in which 52 extra neutrons of opposite spins make two bonds per neutron for constructing the long-lived Th-232. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the Th-232 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF Th-210, Th-212, Th-214, Th-215, Th-216, Th-218, Th-220, Th-222, Th-224, Th-225, Th-226, Th-227, Th-228, Th-230, Th-232, Th-233 Th-234, Th-235, Th-236 ANS Th-238 The structures of this group of unstable nuclides including the long-lived Th-232 are based on the structure of Th-180 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable Th-210, Th-212 and Th-214 have even number of extra neutrons of opposite spins. Moreover the Th-215 with S = -1/2 of 35 extra neutrons has 17 extra neutrons of positive spins and 18 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 + 17(+1/2) + 18(-1/2) = -1/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. Note that the unstable Th-238 with S =0 has 58 extra neutrons of opposite spins. Here the 52 extra neutrons fill the 52 blank positions, while the 6 extra neutrons which are more than those of the Th-232 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Th-209, Th-211, AND Th-213 WITH S= -5/2 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of such unstable nuclides with odd number of extra neutrons are based on another structure of the Th-180 (core) having S = -2 . In this case the one deuteron of the up horizontal line (+UHL), like the line of lead, changes the spin from S = +1 to S = -1 giving S = -2, because it goes to the down horizontal line (-DHL) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down line. For example the Th-213 with S = -5/2 of 33 extra neutrons has 16 extra neutrons of positive spins and 17 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 16(+1/2) + 17(-1/2) = -5/2 Here the 33 extra neutrons fill the 33 blank positions but the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. ' ' '''STRUCTURE OF Th-223, Th-225 Th-229, Th-231, AND Th-237 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Th-180 (core) having S = +2. In this case the one deuteron of the down horizontal line (-DHL) changes the spin from S = -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2. Particularly it goes to the up horizontal line (+UHL), for making horizontal bonds with one deuteron of the up horizontal line. For example the unstable Th-237 with S = +5/2 of 57 extra neutrons has 29 extra neutrons of positive spins and 28 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +2 + 29(+1/2) + 28(-1/2) = +5/2 Here the 52 extra neutrons fill the 52 blank positions, while the 5 extra neutrons which are more than those of the Th-232 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' '''STRUCTURE OF Th-217, Th-219, AND Th-221 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Th-180 (core) having S = +4. In this case the two deuterons of the down horizontal line (-DHL) change their spins from S = -2 to S = +2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to the up horizontal line (+UHL), for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the up horizontal line. For example the unstable Th-221 with S = +7/2 of 41 extra neutrons has 20 extra neutrons of positive spins and 21 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +4 + 20(+1/2) + 21(-1/2) = +7/2 ' ' Category:Fundamental physics concepts